Assessing The Impact of Marine Protected Areas on Food Security of The Bajau Community In
Wakatobi National Park, Indonesia
Hidayatullah
Hamim
Khon
Kaen University, Khon Kaen, Thailand
Email: Hidayatullah.ha@kkumail.com
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Abstract |
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Global conservation efforts, such as Marine
Protected Areas (MPAs), have garnered attention, yet their impact on food
security within indigenous sea-nomadic communities remains underexplored.
This study examines how MPAs affect the Bajau community in Wakatobi National Park (WNP), Indonesia, focusing on
dietary diversity and household food security. The research surveyed 93
households in Mola villages between December 2023 and January 2024. Food
security was measured using indicators like the Household Dietary Diversity
Score (HDDS) and the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS).
Spearman’s correlation and multiple linear regression analyzed relationships
between socio-economic variables and food security. Results showed that the
Bajau's diet was moderately diverse, with a mean HDDS of 8.04, and food
insecurity was relatively low (mean HFIAS = 1.0968). Significant correlations
were found between dietary diversity, food insecurity, and dependency ratios.
Households with higher education had more diverse diets, while those with
higher dependency ratios faced greater food insecurity. Non-fishing
households exhibited higher HDDS, likely due to alternative income sources.
These findings suggest that while the Bajau community generally experiences
moderate food security, vulnerabilities persist, especially in households
with higher dependency ratios. Enhancing livelihood diversification and
access to education may improve food security and resilience in this
sea-nomadic community. Keywords: Marine Protected Areas
(MPAs), Bajau community, food security, Household Dietary Diversity Score
(HDDS), Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) |
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Abstrak Upaya
konservasi global, seperti Kawasan Konservasi Laut (KKP), telah menarik
perhatian, namun dampaknya terhadap ketahanan pangan dalam komunitas nomaden
laut asli masih kurang dieksplorasi. Studi ini mengkaji bagaimana KKL
memengaruhi masyarakat Bajau di Taman Nasional Wakatobi (WNP), Indonesia,
dengan fokus pada keanekaragaman makanan dan ketahanan pangan rumah tangga.
Penelitian ini mensurvei 93 rumah tangga di desa Mola antara Desember 2023
dan Januari 2024. Ketahanan pangan diukur menggunakan indikator seperti Skor
Keanekaragaman Diet Rumah Tangga (HDDS) dan Skala Akses Kerawanan Pangan Rumah
Tangga (HFIAS). Korelasi Spearman dan regresi linier berganda menganalisis
hubungan antara variabel sosial-ekonomi dan ketahanan pangan. Hasil
penelitian menunjukkan bahwa pola makan orang Bajau cukup beragam, dengan
rata-rata HDDS 8,04, dan kerawanan pangan relatif rendah (rata-rata HFIAS =
1,0968). Korelasi yang signifikan ditemukan antara keragaman makanan,
kerawanan pangan, dan rasio ketergantungan. Rumah tangga dengan pendidikan
tinggi memiliki pola makan yang lebih beragam, sementara mereka yang memiliki
rasio ketergantungan yang lebih tinggi menghadapi kerawanan pangan yang lebih
besar. Rumah tangga non-nelayan menunjukkan HDDS yang lebih tinggi,
kemungkinan karena sumber pendapatan alternatif. Temuan ini menunjukkan bahwa
meskipun masyarakat Bajau umumnya mengalami ketahanan pangan sedang,
kerentanan tetap ada, terutama pada rumah tangga dengan rasio ketergantungan
yang lebih tinggi. Meningkatkan diversifikasi mata pencaharian dan akses ke
pendidikan dapat meningkatkan ketahanan dan ketahanan pangan di komunitas
nomaden laut ini. Kata Kunci: Kawasan Lindung Laut (KKP), masyarakat Bajau, ketahanan
pangan, Skor Keanekaragaman Makanan Rumah Tangga (HDDS), Skala Akses
Kerawanan Pangan Rumah Tangga (HFIAS) |
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*Correspondence
Author: Hidayatullah Hamim
Email: Hidayatullah.ha@kkumail.com
INTRODUCTION
Marine ecosystems, which provide critical resources and
services to millions of people worldwide, are under increasing threat from
overfishing, habitat destruction, and climate change. According to the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2022), over 35% of the world’s fish stocks are
being harvested at unsustainable levels, posing a serious risk to global food
security. As a response, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been widely
implemented to preserve marine biodiversity and ensure the sustainable use of
ocean resources (Edgar et al., 2014). Globally, MPAs cover approximately 8% of
the ocean, with ambitious international targets like the 30x30 initiative
aiming to protect 30% of marine areas by 2030 (UNEP-WCMC, 2022).
Indonesia, as the world’s largest archipelagic country,
relies heavily on its marine and coastal ecosystems for economic and social
development. These ecosystems contribute approximately 22% to Indonesia’s Gross
National Product (GNP) and support nearly 39 million jobs, particularly in
fisheries and tourism (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2023).
However, despite the ecological benefits of MPAs, their establishment often
creates socio-economic challenges for local communities. For instance,
indigenous groups like the Bajau, a sea-nomadic population residing in areas
such as Wakatobi National Park, face significant
disruptions to their traditional fishing practices and food security due to
MPA-related restrictions (Clifton, 2013).
Wakatobi National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site, is a hotspot
for marine biodiversity, home to over 750 coral species and 942 fish species (Dahuri et al., 2003). While the park contributes
significantly to global conservation efforts, it imposes limitations on fishing
activities, particularly for indigenous communities like the Bajau who rely on
subsistence fishing for their livelihoods. Studies suggest that restrictive
conservation measures can lead to conflicts between ecological goals and
socio-economic needs (Cinner et al., 2012). This conflict is evident in the
Bajau community, where reduced access to fishing grounds threatens not only
their traditional way of life but also their dietary diversity and food
security (Arias et al., 2015).
The urgency of this issue lies in the need to balance
marine conservation with the socio-economic well-being of indigenous
populations. Globally, indigenous communities play a critical role in
biodiversity conservation, as their traditional ecological knowledge often
complements modern conservation science (Berkes et al., 2000). However, their
marginalization in decision-making processes and restricted access to resources
frequently result in adverse socio-economic outcomes (Chuenpagdee
et al., 2013). Addressing these conflicts is essential for achieving the dual
goals of sustainable development and biodiversity conservation, as outlined in
the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly Goal 14
(Life Below Water) and Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) (UN, 2021).
This study addresses the gap in understanding the
socio-economic impacts of MPAs on indigenous sea-nomadic communities, focusing
on the Bajau in Wakatobi National Park. Unlike
previous research that predominantly highlights the ecological effectiveness of
MPAs (Edgar et al., 2014), this research emphasizes the intersection of
conservation policies and food security, particularly how MPA restrictions affect
the Bajau's dietary diversity, food access, and overall well-being. The novelty
of this research lies in its focus on a holistic assessment of food security
indicators within an indigenous context, providing insights that are often
overlooked in conservation studies (Bennett et al., 2015).
The objectives of this study are threefold: (1) to analyze the impacts of MPA restrictions on the dietary
diversity of the Bajau community, (2) to evaluate how conservation measures
influence their access to key food resources, and (3) to explore strategies for
reconciling conservation goals with the food security needs of indigenous
populations. The findings are expected to provide practical recommendations for
policymakers, conservation practitioners, and local stakeholders to design more
inclusive and equitable marine management strategies that account for the
socio-economic realities of indigenous communities.
In terms of benefits, this research contributes both
theoretically and practically. Theoretically, it expands the discourse on MPAs
by integrating socio-economic dimensions, particularly the food security of
indigenous groups, into conservation policy evaluations (Jupiter et al., 2014).
Practically, the study provides actionable insights for local governments and
conservation organizations to enhance the inclusivity and effectiveness of MPAs
while safeguarding the livelihoods and cultural heritage of indigenous
populations like the Bajau (Kittinger et al., 2013). Ultimately, the research
underscores the importance of participatory approaches in marine conservation
to achieve long-term sustainability and equity.
METHODS
Study Area: The present study was conducted in Wakatobi National Park, located in Southeast Sulawesi,
Indonesia. This national park covers an area of approximately 1.39 million
hectares, encompassing marine biodiversity hotspots, coral reefs, seagrass
meadows, and mangrove forests. The Bajau community, primarily residing in the
Mola villages of the Wakatobi Regency, relies heavily
on marine resources for their livelihoods. The Wakatobi
region is known for its high marine biodiversity, making it a significant area
for conservation efforts and a focus for assessing the socio-economic impacts
of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) on indigenous communities.
Sampling and Data Collection: A quantitative approach was adopted for this study,
utilizing household surveys conducted with the Bajau community. A total of 93
households were randomly selected from the Mola villages. Data collection took
place between December 2023 and January 2024. The survey aimed to gather
information on food security indicators, including Household Dietary Diversity
Score (HDDS), Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS), and dependency
ratios. The survey also included demographic questions related to household
characteristics, education levels, and occupation.
Indicators of Household Food Security: Food security was evaluated using several key indicators:
HDDS, HFIAS, and dependency ratio. The HDDS was assessed through a series of
yes/no questions regarding the consumption of 12 distinct food groups by all
household members within the preceding 24 hours. HFIAS was utilized to measure
food insecurity levels by asking questions regarding food access over the past
four weeks. The dependency ratio was calculated by dividing the number of
non-working individuals by the number of working individuals in each household.
Data Analysis: Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS software
version 28. Spearman’s correlation and multiple linear regression analyses were
performed to assess the relationships between socio-economic variables (such as
education and occupation) and food security outcomes. The analysis aimed to
identify any statistically significant correlations between HDDS, HFIAS, and
the dependency ratio among the sampled households.
Ethical Considerations: Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the
relevant ethical review committee at Khon Kaen University. Informed consent was
secured from all participants, ensuring their voluntary participation and
understanding of the study's purpose and procedures.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Characteristics of the Bajau
Households: Based
on Figure 1, The Bajau community in Wakatobi
National Park demonstrates a strong reliance on marine resources for their
livelihood, reflecting their long-standing seafaring traditions. Fishing
remains the primary economic activity for most households, with approximately
72% of surveyed families listing it as their main source of income. However,
their heavy dependence on fishing makes these households vulnerable to external
factors such as environmental changes and marine conservation policies that limit
access to certain fishing areas, affecting their economic stability and food
security.
In addition to fishing, a small proportion of households
(8%) engage in fish trading, while only 4% of families have diversified into
other sectors such as tourism-related jobs and salaried employment. These
activities provide supplementary income but are not widespread within the
community, reflecting limited occupational diversity. A significant barrier to
income diversification is the community’s traditional reliance on marine-based
livelihoods, leaving few households with the resources or opportunities to
expand into other economic sectors.
Figure 1. Percentage of all nominated livelihoods diversity by
village in WNP.
Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS): Table 1 presents the mean value of HDDS, dependency
ratio and HFIAS of the Bajau. HDDS is a critical indicator used to measure
dietary diversity within the Bajau community households. It reflects the
economic ability of households to access a variety of food groups, serving as a
proxy for the nutritional quality of their diet. The study found that the
average HDDS for the surveyed households was 8.04, indicating a moderately
diverse diet. The HDDS was calculated based on the consumption of 12 different
food groups over the previous 24 hours, with each food group representing one
point on the HDDS scale. Higher HDDS scores indicate greater access to a wide
range of nutrients, which contributes to better food security.
Table 1. Mean value of three groups: HDDS, dependency
ratio, and HFIAS
|
|
N |
Minimum |
Maximum |
Mean |
Std. Deviation |
|
Household Dietary Diversity Score |
93 |
4 |
12 |
8.04 |
2.058 |
|
Dependency ratio |
93 |
0.50 |
5.00 |
2.0377 |
1.16845 |
|
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale |
93 |
0.00 |
4.00 |
1.0968 |
1.39147 |
The analysis of HDDS categories within the Bajau Community
in Wakatobi National Park reveals several key trends
as shown in Figure 2. A significant portion of households achieved
relatively high HDDS scores, with 29% of households scoring 9, the most common
category, followed by 12% scoring 8. This suggests that a large part of the
community enjoys a commendable level of dietary diversity, potentially
indicating stable access to a variety of food groups. However, the percentage
of households with higher HDDS scores (10 to 12) progressively declines, with
only a small proportion reaching the top categories. Notably, no households scored
in the lowest HDDS categories (0 to 3), signaling an
absence of extreme dietary inadequacy. Despite the generally positive outcomes,
11% and 6% of households had moderate HDDS scores of 5 and 6, respectively,
pointing to room for improvement. These results highlight the need to sustain
efforts to enhance dietary diversity, particularly for households with lower
scores, and to explore factors such as socioeconomic status and resource access
to guide interventions that can further improve food security and nutrition in
the community.
Figure 2. The percentage of HDDS categories as a function of each HDDS
Households with higher HDDS typically had access to more
diverse sources of food, such as cereals, vegetables, proteins, and fruits,
contributing to greater food security and nutritional outcomes. The correlation
between HDDS and income was found to be positive, suggesting that households
with higher income levels were able to afford a more varied diet. Additionally,
education played a role in influencing dietary diversity: households where the
head of the family had higher educational attainment generally reported higher
HDDS scores. This indicates that access to education can help households make
informed food choices, improving overall dietary quality.
Dependency Ratio: The dependency ratio is a crucial indicator for assessing
the economic burden on productive members of the Bajau community. In this
study, the mean dependency ratio was 2.0377 referring Table 1, which
means that, on average, there are about two dependent individuals (children and
elderly) for every working-age adult in the sampled households. This ratio
ranged from a low of 0.5 to a high of 5.0 across the 93 surveyed households,
indicating significant variation in household composition. Households with a
lower dependency ratio (closer to 1.0) tend to have fewer dependents per
working-age individual, which generally results in a lesser economic burden on
the productive members of the household. This can enhance the household’s
ability to allocate resources for a more diverse diet, as fewer financial and
food resources are required to sustain dependents. In the study, households
with lower dependency ratios exhibited higher Household Dietary Diversity
Scores (HDDS), reflecting their ability to access and afford a broader variety
of food items. Conversely, households with higher dependency ratios,
particularly those with a ratio of 3.0 or more, face greater pressure on their
working-age members. These households must divide their income and food
resources among more non-working dependents, which can reduce the available
resources for purchasing diverse and nutritious foods. Consequently, these
households tended to have lower HDDS and showed greater vulnerability to food
insecurity. The strain on resources in such households can also result in
higher levels of Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) scores,
indicating that these families are more likely to experience periods of food
shortage or rely on cheaper, less nutritious food options.
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale
(HFIAS): The
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) is another key metric used in
this study to assess the degree of food insecurity experienced by households
over a 30-day period. The HFIAS measures the frequency and severity of food
insecurity, with households reporting on experiences such as reducing the
number of meals, consuming less preferred foods, or skipping meals entirely.
The study revealed that the average HFIAS score for the surveyed households was
relatively low, at 1.0968, suggesting that most households experienced a mild
degree of food insecurity. Figure 3 presenting the result of surveyed
households, most households (55%) reported no food insecurity (HFIAS score of
0), while 17% experienced moderate to severe insecurity. No household fell
within the most severe food insecurity categories.
Figure 3. The percentage of total
Household Food Insecurity Access Score (HFIAS) of households in Bajau
Mola
Correlations Between Food Security
Indicators:
According to Table 2, a significant negative correlation was found
between HDDS and HFIAS (-0.871), meaning households with higher dietary
diversity experienced lower food insecurity. This indicates that dietary
diversity plays a crucial role in food security. There was also a weak positive
correlation between HDDS and the dependency ratio (0.237), suggesting that
households with higher dependency ratios may have reduced dietary diversity.
Lastly, a weak negative correlation between HFIAS and dependency ratio (-0.234)
suggests that as food insecurity decreases, the dependency burden also lessens.
Table
2. The result of correlations among food security indicators
in
Bajau Mola Villages.
|
Correlations |
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|
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Household
Dietary Diversity Score |
Dependency
ratio |
Household Food
Insecurity Access Scale |
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|
Spearman's rho |
Household Dietary Diversity Score |
Correlation
Coefficient |
1.000 |
.237* |
-.871** |
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
. |
.022 |
<.001 |
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N |
93 |
93 |
93 |
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|
Dependency ratio |
Correlation
Coefficient |
.237* |
1.000 |
-.234* |
|
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
.022 |
. |
.024 |
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|
N |
93 |
93 |
93 |
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|
Household Food Insecurity Access Scale |
Correlation
Coefficient |
-.871** |
-.234* |
1.000 |
|
|
Sig. (2-tailed) |
<.001 |
.024 |
. |
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|
N |
93 |
93 |
93 |
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|
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
(2-tailed). |
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**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level
(2-tailed). |
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Correlation between socio-economic characteristic and
HDDS: Based on Table
3, the multiple regression analysis
examines the relationship between socio-economic factors and *Household Dietary
Diversity Score (HDDS)* among the Bajau community in Wakatobi
National Park, Indonesia. The results indicate that the *dependency ratio* has
a coefficient (B = 0.197), suggesting a small predicted increase in HDDS for
every one-unit rise in the ratio. However, with a p-value of 0.329, this effect
is not statistically significant, implying that the dependency ratio does not
have a meaningful influence on dietary diversity in this community. Similarly,
fishing practices, whether seasonal (B = -0.509, p = 0.748) or year-round (B =
1.649, p = 0.129), do not significantly affect HDDS when compared to
non-fishing households. Additionally, the number of occupations within
households does not show a significant relationship with HDDS, as households
with two or three occupations show no notable difference in dietary diversity
compared to those with only one occupation.
On the other hand, education emerges as a significant
factor in influencing HDDS. Households where the head completed *senior high
school* show a substantial increase in HDDS (B = 3.313, p < 0.001) compared
to those with no formal education, indicating that education plays a crucial
role in improving dietary diversity. However, education levels below senior
high school, such as primary or junior high school, and even university-level
education, do not show significant impacts on HDDS. These findings suggest that
while higher education, particularly at the senior high school level,
significantly improves dietary diversity, other socio-economic factors such as
the dependency ratio, fishing practices, and occupational diversity do not have
a significant influence on the HDDS of the Bajau households.
Table 3. Extract of multiple regression analysis
results
for the relationship between socio-economic
characteristic and HDDS.
|
Model |
Unstandardized Coefficients |
Standardized Coefficients |
t-value |
Sig. (p-value) |
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|
B |
Std. Error |
Beta |
||||
|
1 |
Main effects (Constant) |
6.180 |
1.011 |
|
6.115 |
<.001 |
|
Dependency ratio |
.197 |
.200 |
.112 |
.981 |
.329 |
|
|
No Education |
Reference group |
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|
Primary School |
-.164 |
.537 |
-.040 |
-.305 |
.761 |
|
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Junior High School |
.522 |
.774 |
.075 |
.675 |
.502 |
|
|
Senior High School |
3.313 |
.812 |
.579 |
4.080 |
<.001 |
|
|
University Level |
1.657 |
1.310 |
.227 |
1.265 |
.209 |
|
|
Non-fishing Households |
Reference group |
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|
Seasonal Fishing |
-.509 |
1.580 |
-.106 |
-.322 |
.748 |
|
|
Year-Round Fishing |
1.649 |
1.075 |
.373 |
1.534 |
.129 |
|
|
One Occupation |
Reference group |
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Two Occupations |
-.623 |
1.916 |
-.131 |
-.325 |
.746 |
|
|
Three Occupations |
-.476 |
2.928 |
-.034 |
-.162 |
.871 |
|
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a. Dependent Variable: Household Dietary Diversity Score |
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Discussion
Though food security studies have attracted attention in
diverse regions, research specific to the Bajau community in Wakatobi National Park remains scarce. Available studies
largely overlook the unique socio-ecological dynamics of this seafaring
community
The correlation between HDDS and HFIAS, with a strong
negative coefficient of -0.871, highlights the critical role of dietary
diversity in mitigating food insecurity. Households with more diverse diets
tend to experience less food insecurity, which underscores the importance of
ensuring access to a wide variety of food groups. Interestingly, the analysis
also revealed a positive correlation between HDDS and the dependency ratio
(0.237), suggesting that households with more dependents may still maintain
higher dietary diversity, potentially due to collective household efforts to
secure food. However, this does not discount the financial pressures
these households face, as they must balance resource allocation across a larger
group of dependents.
The study highlights a statistically significant inverse
correlation between the dependency ratio and food security, with households
experiencing higher dependency ratios being more likely to encounter challenges
in meeting their dietary needs. This is consistent with the broader literature,
which suggests that households with a higher number of dependents tend to have
greater difficulty maintaining food security due to increased economic demands
on fewer productive members.
The dependency ratio's impact on food security in the Bajau
community is particularly notable given their reliance on fishing and other
natural resources, which are subject to seasonal fluctuations and restrictions
imposed by Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). Higher dependency ratios exacerbate
the challenges faced by these households, as they must balance the needs of
their dependents with the limitations placed on their traditional livelihoods
by conservation regulations.
Education also plays a significant role in shaping dietary
outcomes within the Bajau community. The results show that households where the
head has completed senior high school education have a significantly higher
HDDS, with a coefficient of 3.313 (p < 0.001). This finding aligns
with previous research indicating that higher education levels lead to better
awareness of nutrition and increased access to diverse food options
Finally, the study’s limitations must be acknowledged. The
gendered dimensions of food security were not explored, leaving a gap in
understanding how gender roles within Bajau households influence food access
and dietary decisions. Future research should explore these dynamics to provide
a more comprehensive understanding of food security in the community. Overall,
this study offers valuable insights into the socio-economic factors that
influence food security in the Bajau Mola community and highlights the need for
multifaceted interventions to address the community’s vulnerabilities and
improve their resilience to food insecurity.
CONCLUSIONS
The
Bajau community in Wakatobi National Park relies
heavily on marine resources, with 72% of households primarily dependent on
fishing for their livelihoods, making them vulnerable to environmental changes
and marine conservation policies. While 55% of households reported no food insecurity,
17% experienced moderate to severe food insecurity, reflecting unequal access
to nutritious food. About 29% of households achieved a high dietary diversity
score (HDDS) of 9, while others had lower scores, indicating the need for
targeted interventions. Factors contributing to food insecurity include low
income, limited livelihood diversification, and the economic burden of larger
households. Education also plays a critical role, with households led by
individuals who completed senior high school exhibiting higher dietary
diversity. To improve food security, recommendations include diversifying
income sources, strengthening education initiatives, and enhancing access to
resources. Revitalizing local food systems and promoting sustainable fishing
practices could reduce reliance on external factors and improve dietary
diversity and food security. The research was supported by the ASEAN-GMS
Scholarship and Khon Kaen University, Thailand, with deep appreciation extended
to the Bajau community for their participation and hospitality. The authors
declared no conflict of interest.
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